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Chapter 2 Knowledge and Situational Awareness for Junior Officer
第一部分：初階航海駕駛員的專業知識與情境意識
初階駕駛員的專業能力是以 STCW 執照作為標誌——這是一項國際標準的榮譽。然而，在海上殘酷的現實中，我們經常看到航行值班駕駛員（OOW）成了「合格的業餘者」：他們擁有操作雷達（Radar）、自動避碰系統（ARPA）和電子海圖（ECDIS）的執照，卻缺乏對這些螢幕背後致命危險的直覺感應。船東公司和學校傳授了危險的「定義」，卻未能教導人類反應的「方式」。對初階駕駛員而言，真正的知識並非來自手冊，而是來自將儀器數據轉化為情境意識有效線索的能力。
2-01 第一班航行：現實的交接
圖 2-1 第一班航行：船舶剛駛離母港
想像你是新到任的航行值班駕駛員（OOW）。船舶剛駛離母港，海上交通並不繁忙——運氣不錯。你的雙手正忙著操作雷達，熟悉軌跡球的手感，調校可變距離環（VRM）與電子方位線（EBL）。你沉浸在螢幕畫面的視覺調校中：速度向量長度要設多少？軌跡長度設多少最合適？
一位資深水手（AB）站在駕駛台門邊，凝視著窗外。他完全沒有看你的螢幕。他連頭也沒回便開口說：「長官，左舷有一艘船正交叉穿過。」
你的第一本能是防衛性的。「喔！好！我確認一下，」你回答道，同時雙眼連忙移回雷達螢幕尋找光點。
「不，不，長官，我很確定，」他堅持說道。
你在心裡有些惱火。急什麼？在 ARPA 都還沒捕獲目標前，一個普通水手怎麼可能這麼確定？但你保持了沈默。你只是個新手，在此時此刻，你甚至不知道自己盲點在哪。
這裡出了什麼問題？
失敗早已開始。OOW 正在螢幕中尋找「確認」（Confirmation），而水手提供的是來自大海的「觀察」（Observation）。
**螢幕陷阱（The Screen Trap）：** OOW 優先考慮的是儀器工具的「設定」，而非地平線上的「現實」。
**權威鴻溝（The Authority Gap）：** 他將水手的目視報告視為一種干擾、一種需要透過「更高級」的電子設備來核實的事項，而非需要立即抬頭關注的優先警報。
2-02 目視瞭望是駕駛台的第一要務，也是最後一道防線
我們應該先看向駕駛台的窗外。看什麼、怎麼看，是你還在駕駛台當實習生時、尚未考取適任證書（CoC）前就必須學習的一課。
首要任務是尋找距離的線索。在左舷，我尋找著水面倒影、尾浪水流，以及與我們貨櫃船相比顯得微小的幾盞船燈（圖 2-1）。左舷清晰可見四艘船；右舷兩三浬外還有第五艘船，僅顯示出一盞燈光。
我該如何知道它們的距離與船首向角度（Aspect）？哪一面正對著我們？我該如何處理？現在需要拿起雙筒望遠鏡嗎？
看看右舷那第五艘船。那一盞燈光，究竟是巨輪的船尾燈，還是小船的桅頂燈？它的水線危險地接近我們的視線盲區。SOLAS 公約第五章第 22 條規定：從駕駛位置起算，海面被遮蔽的距離不得超過兩倍船長或 500 公尺。
讓我們根據這 500 公尺的要求畫出一道看不見的地平線（圖 2-2）。
右舷的船隻位於這條地平線之外。無論它是大船還是小船，都處於該即時限制之外。但左舷那兩艘船呢？它們恰好落在這條線上。這是一個明確的訊號：它們距離我們的駕駛台只有 500 公尺。甲板燈、水面倒影和眩光都證實了這一點。
現在，你該如何評估這兩艘船的碰撞風險並設定優先順序？
圖 2-2 依據 SOLAS 航行視野規定判定目標船距離
相對方位較小——即最靠近你前桅的目標，會得到你的優先關注。這是人類的本能，但對年輕人來說，這是一個被稱為「隧道效應」（Tunnel Effect）的知識陷阱。
周圍的環境似乎集中在地平線上的單一區域。你只看得見正前方的物體，開始忽略周邊的目標，專注於正前方的目標。若兩船處於相反航向，例如第 14 條對遇情事（Head-on situation），正前方的目標會具有更高的相對速度。
(a). 當兩艘機動船在相反或接近相反的航向交叉相遇，致有碰撞風險時。
(b). 當一船看見另一船在其正前方或接近正前方時，應視為存在此種情事。
規則很明確：當你看到另一艘船位於正前方或接近正前方時，即視為該情事存在。夜間時，你會看到桅燈成一直線，及/或同時看到兩側的舷燈。
在圖 2-3 中，我們將第一優先級設定給左舷的目標。但仔細觀察：這並不是對遇情事。它並不在本船的正前方。通常，如果一艘船的相對方位距離前桅超過 10 度，就不會被視為對遇。在此扇區之外，即使航向相反，碰撞風險也可能不存在——這個原因我留給下一章的資深駕駛員討論。
然而，1號交叉船的相對速度仍明顯高於更偏左舷的 2號目標。速度是威脅所在，但隧道效應才是讓你忽略其他目標的原因。
初階駕駛員的專業能力是以 STCW 執照作為標誌——這是一項國際標準的榮譽。然而，在海上殘酷的現實中，我們經常看到航行值班駕駛員（OOW）成了「合格的業餘者」：他們擁有操作雷達（Radar）、自動避碰系統（ARPA）和電子海圖（ECDIS）的執照，卻缺乏對這些螢幕背後致命危險的直覺感應。船東公司和學校傳授了危險的「定義」，卻未能教導人類反應的「方式」。對初階駕駛員而言，真正的知識並非來自手冊，而是來自將儀器數據轉化為情境意識有效線索的能力。
2-01 第一班航行：現實的交接
圖 2-1 第一班航行：船舶剛駛離母港
想像你是新到任的航行值班駕駛員（OOW）。船舶剛駛離母港，海上交通並不繁忙——運氣不錯。你的雙手正忙著操作雷達，熟悉軌跡球的手感，調校可變距離環（VRM）與電子方位線（EBL）。你沉浸在螢幕畫面的視覺調校中：速度向量長度要設多少？軌跡長度設多少最合適？
一位資深水手（AB）站在駕駛台門邊，凝視著窗外。他完全沒有看你的螢幕。他連頭也沒回便開口說：「長官，左舷有一艘船正交叉穿過。」
你的第一本能是防衛性的。「喔！好！我確認一下，」你回答道，同時雙眼連忙移回雷達螢幕尋找光點。
「不，不，長官，我很確定，」他堅持說道。
你在心裡有些惱火。急什麼？在 ARPA 都還沒捕獲目標前，一個普通水手怎麼可能這麼確定？但你保持了沈默。你只是個新手，在此時此刻，你甚至不知道自己盲點在哪。
這裡出了什麼問題？
失敗早已開始。OOW 正在螢幕中尋找「確認」（Confirmation），而水手提供的是來自大海的「觀察」（Observation）。
**螢幕陷阱（The Screen Trap）：** OOW 優先考慮的是儀器工具的「設定」，而非地平線上的「現實」。
**權威鴻溝（The Authority Gap）：** 他將水手的目視報告視為一種干擾、一種需要透過「更高級」的電子設備來核實的事項，而非需要立即抬頭關注的優先警報。
2-02 目視瞭望是駕駛台的第一要務，也是最後一道防線
我們應該先看向駕駛台的窗外。看什麼、怎麼看，是你還在駕駛台當實習生時、尚未考取適任證書（CoC）前就必須學習的一課。
首要任務是尋找距離的線索。在左舷，我尋找著水面倒影、尾浪水流，以及與我們貨櫃船相比顯得微小的幾盞船燈（圖 2-1）。左舷清晰可見四艘船；右舷兩三浬外還有第五艘船，僅顯示出一盞燈光。
我該如何知道它們的距離與船首向角度（Aspect）？哪一面正對著我們？我該如何處理？現在需要拿起雙筒望遠鏡嗎？
看看右舷那第五艘船。那一盞燈光，究竟是巨輪的船尾燈，還是小船的桅頂燈？它的水線危險地接近我們的視線盲區。SOLAS 公約第五章第 22 條規定：從駕駛位置起算，海面被遮蔽的距離不得超過兩倍船長或 500 公尺。
讓我們根據這 500 公尺的要求畫出一道看不見的地平線（圖 2-2）。
右舷的船隻位於這條地平線之外。無論它是大船還是小船，都處於該即時限制之外。但左舷那兩艘船呢？它們恰好落在這條線上。這是一個明確的訊號：它們距離我們的駕駛台只有 500 公尺。甲板燈、水面倒影和眩光都證實了這一點。
現在，你該如何評估這兩艘船的碰撞風險並設定優先順序？
圖 2-2 依據 SOLAS 航行視野規定判定目標船距離
相對方位較小——即最靠近你前桅的目標，會得到你的優先關注。這是人類的本能，但對年輕人來說，這是一個被稱為「隧道效應」（Tunnel Effect）的知識陷阱。
周圍的環境似乎集中在地平線上的單一區域。你只看得見正前方的物體，開始忽略周邊的目標，專注於正前方的目標。若兩船處於相反航向，例如第 14 條對遇情事（Head-on situation），正前方的目標會具有更高的相對速度。
(a). 當兩艘機動船在相反或接近相反的航向交叉相遇，致有碰撞風險時。
(b). 當一船看見另一船在其正前方或接近正前方時，應視為存在此種情事。
規則很明確：當你看到另一艘船位於正前方或接近正前方時，即視為該情事存在。夜間時，你會看到桅燈成一直線，及/或同時看到兩側的舷燈。
在圖 2-3 中，我們將第一優先級設定給左舷的目標。但仔細觀察：這並不是對遇情事。它並不在本船的正前方。通常，如果一艘船的相對方位距離前桅超過 10 度，就不會被視為對遇。在此扇區之外，即使航向相反，碰撞風險也可能不存在——這個原因我留給下一章的資深駕駛員討論。
然而，1號交叉船的相對速度仍明顯高於更偏左舷的 2號目標。速度是威脅所在，但隧道效應才是讓你忽略其他目標的原因。
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PART I: Knowledge and Situational Awareness
for Junior Officer
A junior officer’s competency is marked by anSTCW license—an international honor of standard.
Yet, in the raw reality of the sea, we often seeOOWs as "qualified amateurs": men licensed to operate
Radar,ARPA, andECDIS, but who lack a visceral understanding of the lethal potential within those
screens. Companies and schools provide the "what" of danger, but they fail to prepare the "how" of a
human's reaction. True knowledge for a Junior Officer isn't found in a manual; it is found in theability to
translate instrument data into useful hints for situational awareness.
2-01 The First Watch: The Handover of Reality
Figure 2-1 First Watch: Vessel justsailed out of home port
Imagine you are the newOOW. The vessel has just cleared the home port. The traffic is light—a
lucky break. Your hands are busy on the Radar, adjusting to the "feel" of the trackball, fiddling with
theVRM (Variable Range Marker) andEBL (Electronic Bearing Line). You are preoccupied with the
aesthetics of the screen: How long should thespeed vector be? Whattrail length is best?
An oldAB stands by the bridge door, staring out the window. He doesn’t look at your screens.
Without turning, hesays: “Sir, there is a vessel crossing on the port side.”
Your instinct is defensive. “Oh! OK! Let me check,” you reply, your eyes diving back into the radar
to find a blip.
“No, no, Sir, I’m sure,” he insists.
In your mind, you’re annoyed. What’s the rush? How can a rating be so sure before theARPA even
acquires the target? But you stay silent. You are a rookie, and in this moment, you don’t know what you
don’t know.
What’s wrong here?
The failure has already begun. TheOOW is looking for Confirmation in a screen, while theAB is
providing Observation from the sea.
The Screen Trap: TheOOW is prioritizing the "setup" of his tools over the "reality" of the
horizon.
The Authority Gap: He views theAB’s visual report as a nuisance to be verified by "superior"
electronics, rather than a primary warning that demands an immediate eyes-up response.
2-02 Visual lookout is first and last thing at bridge.
We should look out the bridge window first. What to look at is the lesson you had to learn while you
were a cadet on the bridge, before you ever earned that CoC.
The first priority is searching for clues of distance. On the port side, I seek the reflections, the wake
current, and the few lights of vessels that are small compared to our containers (Figure 2-1). Four
vessels are visible to port. A fifth sits to starboard—two or three miles out—showing only a single light.
How can I know their distance and theiraspect? What side is facing us? What do I doabout them?
Should I reach for the binoculars now?
Look at that fifth vessel to starboard. Is that one light the stern of a giant or the masthead of a
small boat? Her waterline is dangerously close to our blind area. SOLAS Chapter V, Regulation 22
dictates that the sea surface must not be obscured by more than two ship lengths or 500 meters from
the conning position.
Let us draw an invisible horizon based on that 500-meter requirement (Figure 2-2).
The starboard vessel is ahead of this horizon. Whether it is a big ship or a small boat, it is outside
that immediate limit. But those two vessels on the port side? They are sitting exactly on that line. That
is a clear indication: they are 500 meters from our bridge. The deck lights, the reflection, and the glare
on the water confirm it.
Now, how do you set the priority to assess the collision risk of these two vessels??
Figure 2-2 Determine target vessel distance by SOLAS regulation of Visibility
The target with the smallrelative bearing—the one closest to your foremast—gets your priority.
This is human nature, but for a young man, it is a knowledge trap called the Tunnel Effect.
The surroundings seem to concentrate at a single point on the horizon. You see only the objects
right in front of your eyes. You start ignoring peripheral targets to focus on the forward one. A target
ahead has a higher relative speed if both vessels are on reciprocal courses, as in a Rule 14 Head-on
situation.
(a). When two power-driven vessels are meeting on reciprocal or nearly reciprocal
courses so as to involve risk of collision.
(b). Such a situation shall be deemed to exist when a vessel sees the other ahead or
nearly ahead.
The rule is clear: such a situation is deemed to exist when you see the other vessel ahead or
nearly ahead. At night, you see the masthead lights in a line and/or both sidelights.
In Figure 2-3, we set Number 1 Priority to the target on the port side. But look closely: this is not a
head-on situation. She is not ahead of ownship. Generally, if a vessel’srelative bearing is more than 10
degrees from the foremast, it is not deemed head-on. Outside this sector, even on reciprocal courses,
the collision risk may not exist—a reason I will leave for the SeniorOOWs in the next chapter.
However, the relative speed of Crossing Vessel No. 1 is still significantly higher than Target No. 2
further to port. The speed is the threat, but the tunnel effect is what makes you miss the others.
Figure 2-3 See other vessel ahead or nearly ahead?
Bearing Change: The Only Truth in the Dark
Look at Figure 2-3. Mama mia. Give me a break. Who can tell what lights that No. 1 target is
displaying?
There is an old standing order: If you cannot be sure of the target's direction, do not take action to
avoid. But how can you be sure of her heading by those lights? Even with binoculars, at this range, you
cannot tell her bow from her stern. Trying to figure out which side she is facing is a waste of precious
time.
The Line of Sight: Protecting Your Night Vision
How do you verify her bearing change without losing your night vision? If you go to the gyro
repeater and use the azimuth circle, the light from the compass will destroy your dark adaptation—
which takes 10 minutes to recover.
Don't move. Stand where you are. Use your line of sight against a fixed point on the window frame
or a container edge to check her movement. In Figure 2-4, I haven't drawn the line of sight for you.
Your eyes need the exercise. Use what we discussed in Chapter One to create your own reference.
The Summary of the Eye:
Targets No. 1 and 3: Their bearings are changing atabout thesame rate. They should be
clear to pass.
Targets No. 2 and 4: The bearing change is slow, but acceptable because they are moving in
thesame direction as ownship.
The Real Threat:
Now, look at the white light on our starboard side. By the visibility rule, she is roughly 500 meters
ahead of our bow.
Figure 2-4 what did you seeabout target vessel movement?
2-02 Bearing changed slow, acceptable or not
We are lucky here. These targets are small vessels; they do not grow into the looming "monster
ships" that paralyze a bridge with fear. Look at Figure 2-5. Target No. 1 has a bearing change ofabout 6
degrees to our port side.
Her original distance was approximately 1,026 meters (calculated as 700 meters ahead of the
bridge, divided by the cosine of her 47°relative bearing).
If we take that distance and multiply it by the sine of her 6-degree bearing change:
1026 x Sin(6°) ≈ 107 meters (from white spot moving to current ship’s position).
This 107 meters is more than two times her ship’s length—she isabout 30 meters long—which
should be enough for her to pass clear. Now, her distance of 1,026 meters is derived from a 500-meter
ahead distance plus 200 meters from the bridge to our bow—700 meters total ahead of the bridge. 700
meters multiplied by Cosine 47° gives us that 1,026 meters. That isabout 5.5 cables, roughly half a
nautical mile.
As the calculation stands, should we simply memorize it like this? For a small vessel less than 30
meters long, half a nautical mile away, a 6-degree bearing change is enough to clear.
Actually, this is not the case. Look deeper. Target No. 1 is moving away from its original relative
position toward our portside direction. So the real rule for passingsafely should be:
The Rule of Direction:
A portside vessel moving further to port at half a nautical mile with a 6-degree change issafe.
However, a portside vessel moving toward your starboard side is a death sentence; it means she is
trying to cross your bow.
In Chapter 1, we emphasized "Aspect"—port-to-port. But with small vessels, you cannot always
trust their light configuration to show you theiraspect. Therefore, you must trust their movement.
Port side vessel moving to port:Safe (Port-to-Port).
Starboard side vessel moving to starboard:Safe (Starboard-to-Starboard).
Take a look at target No. 2. We cannotsay for sure what light is this or that, but we can see she is
going in thesame direction as ownship. For a JuniorOOW, that must be enough. We did not break the
first rule of lookout: Make sure you know where she is going.
Figure 2-5 what did you seeabout target bearing change?
For the target vessel on our starboard side, we observe through the red line of sight: her bearing
has changed byabout three degrees. At thesame time, the reflection on the sea is sharpening and the
glare of her lights is increasing. This combination triggers a physical sense of danger.
What is happening? Is she closing in from starboard to port? Is her beam distance insufficient? Or
is ownship overtaking her at a dangerously close range? One thing is certain: a starboard-side vessel
is closing on ownship, and herrelative bearing has increased.
You might think: “I’ll just alter course to port by 5 degrees to speed up the passing.”
But wait. Take a closer look. This starboard-side vessel’s distance from our bow is now less than
500 meters. This distance—this physical proximity—is a "sure sign" for immediate action.
Why?
Because at less than 500 meters, you are no longer in a "navigational encounter"; you are in a
spatial crisis. Any small vessel crossing your bow at this range can disappear into your blind sector in
seconds. The "3-degree change" you see is deceptive; it doesn't provide enough clearance for a vessel
of our mass. The increase in glare and reflection isn't just a visual detail—it is the sea telling you that
the distance is collapsing faster than your instruments can calculate.
This is your first lookout lesson in the Far East: When the bow distance drops below the SOLAS
500m limit, the time for "watching" is over. It is time to act.
Figure 2-6 Bow crossing by small boat. Your first lookout lesson in Far East.
2-03 Bow crossing by small boat
In Figure 2-2, we used the SOLAS visibility line as our reference—our "personal horizon." We
successfully identified Vessels No. 1 and No. 2 sitting right on that 500-meter line. I advised you to give
way to the starboard-side vessel showing only a three-degree bearing change.
Why am I so anxiousabout this? Because this small vessel isabout to merge into your visual blind
sector: the 500 meters immediately ahead of your bow.
If you lose visual contact with a target at this range, anything can happen in the dark. Maybe they
suffer an engine breakdown, lose steering, or get fouled in their own fishing nets. Once a vessel enters
that blind distance, your heart should be in your throat.
But there is a concern even greater than losing sight of them: it is the potential loss of control of
your own ship.
You see, that 500 meters is a distance your bow cannot maneuver out of. In that space, your ship’s
bow is effectively "frozen." Why? Because we are a ship, not a car. Ships change direction in water
through rudder effects, and a rudder's surface area is no match for the massive momentum of a ship’s
body and weight. It works, but it works in slow motion.
How slow is your vessel’s response to the rudder angle you’ve just ordered??
Figure 2-7 Visual blind sector: 500 meters ahead of ownship’s bow.
Look at Figure 2-7. No matter how much rudder you apply, your bow stays on its original track in
the beginning. This is because the rudder is at the aft of the ship. You don't steer the bow; you push the
stern.
To understand why that 500-meter zone is a "Dead Zone," you must understand that vessel turning
happens in three distinct stages:
2-04 First Stage in Turning: The Inertial Delay
In the first stage of a turn, the only thing that moves is the stern. It is pushed outward by the
rudder’s resistance in the water. Think of a man-overboard maneuver: we throw the rudder hard over,
hoping the stern will swing away from the person in the water. In this phase, the ship’s bow continues
to follow the original course line without any lateral movement whatsoever.
The data shows that forabout 1.5 ship lengths of advance, your bow remains locked on its original
heading.
This first stage is a physical "wait time." No matter how urgent the crisis, you are at the mercy of
the ship’s reaction time. You must stop thinking of yourself as a single point on a chart. You may be a
300-meter vessel, but in a maneuver, you behave like a 600-meter monster.
Look at the geometry of your movement. If your bridge is at Point A, you cannot effectively initiate
a course change to avoid a collision until you reach Point C—one and a half ship lengths ahead. Any
vessel closer than Point C is already inside your "maneuvering shadow." At that range, you cannot
steer away from them; they must use their own engine power and steering gear to get out of your way.
The area of movement that travels with us is massive. As anOOW, handling a vessel of this size is
equivalent to managing the momentum of four thousand cars simultaneously. We are the drivers of the
largest robots on Earth, and that is no exaggeration.
You must carry this awareness: the distance to Point C is approximately thesame as the IMO
visibility limit of 500 meters. This is exactly why we feel that deep anxiety when a small vesselsails into
our blind sector. They have entered a space where ourability to maneuver has effectively ceased,
threatening thesafety of both vessels.
Figure 2-8 Distance of Advance included blind sector.
2-05 Take bearing from where for target vessel
In Rule 7 of COLREGs, collision risk shall be deemed to exist if the compass bearing of an
approaching vessel does not appreciably change. But the rule then adds a warning: collision risk may
sometimes exist even when an appreciable bearing change is evident—particularly when approaching
a very large vessel, a tow, or a vessel at close range.
This sounds like a contradiction. How can a changing bearing still mean a collision risk?
The answer is found in the physical reality of closing distance (Figure 2-8). As vessels draw near,
the target does not remain a "point" on the horizon; it grows. This is where parallax—the apparent
change in bearing caused by the closing distance altering your line of sight—can deceive you. In the
previous chapter, we discussed the "Visual Blossom," where the target vessel appears to expand at
close range.
How big can that "blossom" get? At a terminal range, a massive vessel or a long tow can grow until
it behaves like an island or an iceberg, physically blocking your entire horizon from the starboard bow
to the port bow.
In this situation, a "changing bearing" measured from the target's bow doesn't mean you aresafe. If
the target's bow is moving down your port side but its stern is still swinging toward your starboard side,
you aren't passing—you are being swallowed by the target’s physical dimensions.
This is the knowledge awareness a Junior Officer must hold: When the distance is small, a single
bearing point is no longer enough. You must monitor the whole "body" of the threat
for Junior Officer
A junior officer’s competency is marked by anSTCW license—an international honor of standard.
Yet, in the raw reality of the sea, we often seeOOWs as "qualified amateurs": men licensed to operate
Radar,ARPA, andECDIS, but who lack a visceral understanding of the lethal potential within those
screens. Companies and schools provide the "what" of danger, but they fail to prepare the "how" of a
human's reaction. True knowledge for a Junior Officer isn't found in a manual; it is found in theability to
translate instrument data into useful hints for situational awareness.
2-01 The First Watch: The Handover of Reality
Figure 2-1 First Watch: Vessel justsailed out of home port
Imagine you are the newOOW. The vessel has just cleared the home port. The traffic is light—a
lucky break. Your hands are busy on the Radar, adjusting to the "feel" of the trackball, fiddling with
theVRM (Variable Range Marker) andEBL (Electronic Bearing Line). You are preoccupied with the
aesthetics of the screen: How long should thespeed vector be? Whattrail length is best?
An oldAB stands by the bridge door, staring out the window. He doesn’t look at your screens.
Without turning, hesays: “Sir, there is a vessel crossing on the port side.”
Your instinct is defensive. “Oh! OK! Let me check,” you reply, your eyes diving back into the radar
to find a blip.
“No, no, Sir, I’m sure,” he insists.
In your mind, you’re annoyed. What’s the rush? How can a rating be so sure before theARPA even
acquires the target? But you stay silent. You are a rookie, and in this moment, you don’t know what you
don’t know.
What’s wrong here?
The failure has already begun. TheOOW is looking for Confirmation in a screen, while theAB is
providing Observation from the sea.
The Screen Trap: TheOOW is prioritizing the "setup" of his tools over the "reality" of the
horizon.
The Authority Gap: He views theAB’s visual report as a nuisance to be verified by "superior"
electronics, rather than a primary warning that demands an immediate eyes-up response.
2-02 Visual lookout is first and last thing at bridge.
We should look out the bridge window first. What to look at is the lesson you had to learn while you
were a cadet on the bridge, before you ever earned that CoC.
The first priority is searching for clues of distance. On the port side, I seek the reflections, the wake
current, and the few lights of vessels that are small compared to our containers (Figure 2-1). Four
vessels are visible to port. A fifth sits to starboard—two or three miles out—showing only a single light.
How can I know their distance and theiraspect? What side is facing us? What do I doabout them?
Should I reach for the binoculars now?
Look at that fifth vessel to starboard. Is that one light the stern of a giant or the masthead of a
small boat? Her waterline is dangerously close to our blind area. SOLAS Chapter V, Regulation 22
dictates that the sea surface must not be obscured by more than two ship lengths or 500 meters from
the conning position.
Let us draw an invisible horizon based on that 500-meter requirement (Figure 2-2).
The starboard vessel is ahead of this horizon. Whether it is a big ship or a small boat, it is outside
that immediate limit. But those two vessels on the port side? They are sitting exactly on that line. That
is a clear indication: they are 500 meters from our bridge. The deck lights, the reflection, and the glare
on the water confirm it.
Now, how do you set the priority to assess the collision risk of these two vessels??
Figure 2-2 Determine target vessel distance by SOLAS regulation of Visibility
The target with the smallrelative bearing—the one closest to your foremast—gets your priority.
This is human nature, but for a young man, it is a knowledge trap called the Tunnel Effect.
The surroundings seem to concentrate at a single point on the horizon. You see only the objects
right in front of your eyes. You start ignoring peripheral targets to focus on the forward one. A target
ahead has a higher relative speed if both vessels are on reciprocal courses, as in a Rule 14 Head-on
situation.
(a). When two power-driven vessels are meeting on reciprocal or nearly reciprocal
courses so as to involve risk of collision.
(b). Such a situation shall be deemed to exist when a vessel sees the other ahead or
nearly ahead.
The rule is clear: such a situation is deemed to exist when you see the other vessel ahead or
nearly ahead. At night, you see the masthead lights in a line and/or both sidelights.
In Figure 2-3, we set Number 1 Priority to the target on the port side. But look closely: this is not a
head-on situation. She is not ahead of ownship. Generally, if a vessel’srelative bearing is more than 10
degrees from the foremast, it is not deemed head-on. Outside this sector, even on reciprocal courses,
the collision risk may not exist—a reason I will leave for the SeniorOOWs in the next chapter.
However, the relative speed of Crossing Vessel No. 1 is still significantly higher than Target No. 2
further to port. The speed is the threat, but the tunnel effect is what makes you miss the others.
Figure 2-3 See other vessel ahead or nearly ahead?
Bearing Change: The Only Truth in the Dark
Look at Figure 2-3. Mama mia. Give me a break. Who can tell what lights that No. 1 target is
displaying?
There is an old standing order: If you cannot be sure of the target's direction, do not take action to
avoid. But how can you be sure of her heading by those lights? Even with binoculars, at this range, you
cannot tell her bow from her stern. Trying to figure out which side she is facing is a waste of precious
time.
The Line of Sight: Protecting Your Night Vision
How do you verify her bearing change without losing your night vision? If you go to the gyro
repeater and use the azimuth circle, the light from the compass will destroy your dark adaptation—
which takes 10 minutes to recover.
Don't move. Stand where you are. Use your line of sight against a fixed point on the window frame
or a container edge to check her movement. In Figure 2-4, I haven't drawn the line of sight for you.
Your eyes need the exercise. Use what we discussed in Chapter One to create your own reference.
The Summary of the Eye:
Targets No. 1 and 3: Their bearings are changing atabout thesame rate. They should be
clear to pass.
Targets No. 2 and 4: The bearing change is slow, but acceptable because they are moving in
thesame direction as ownship.
The Real Threat:
Now, look at the white light on our starboard side. By the visibility rule, she is roughly 500 meters
ahead of our bow.
Figure 2-4 what did you seeabout target vessel movement?
2-02 Bearing changed slow, acceptable or not
We are lucky here. These targets are small vessels; they do not grow into the looming "monster
ships" that paralyze a bridge with fear. Look at Figure 2-5. Target No. 1 has a bearing change ofabout 6
degrees to our port side.
Her original distance was approximately 1,026 meters (calculated as 700 meters ahead of the
bridge, divided by the cosine of her 47°relative bearing).
If we take that distance and multiply it by the sine of her 6-degree bearing change:
1026 x Sin(6°) ≈ 107 meters (from white spot moving to current ship’s position).
This 107 meters is more than two times her ship’s length—she isabout 30 meters long—which
should be enough for her to pass clear. Now, her distance of 1,026 meters is derived from a 500-meter
ahead distance plus 200 meters from the bridge to our bow—700 meters total ahead of the bridge. 700
meters multiplied by Cosine 47° gives us that 1,026 meters. That isabout 5.5 cables, roughly half a
nautical mile.
As the calculation stands, should we simply memorize it like this? For a small vessel less than 30
meters long, half a nautical mile away, a 6-degree bearing change is enough to clear.
Actually, this is not the case. Look deeper. Target No. 1 is moving away from its original relative
position toward our portside direction. So the real rule for passingsafely should be:
The Rule of Direction:
A portside vessel moving further to port at half a nautical mile with a 6-degree change issafe.
However, a portside vessel moving toward your starboard side is a death sentence; it means she is
trying to cross your bow.
In Chapter 1, we emphasized "Aspect"—port-to-port. But with small vessels, you cannot always
trust their light configuration to show you theiraspect. Therefore, you must trust their movement.
Port side vessel moving to port:Safe (Port-to-Port).
Starboard side vessel moving to starboard:Safe (Starboard-to-Starboard).
Take a look at target No. 2. We cannotsay for sure what light is this or that, but we can see she is
going in thesame direction as ownship. For a JuniorOOW, that must be enough. We did not break the
first rule of lookout: Make sure you know where she is going.
Figure 2-5 what did you seeabout target bearing change?
For the target vessel on our starboard side, we observe through the red line of sight: her bearing
has changed byabout three degrees. At thesame time, the reflection on the sea is sharpening and the
glare of her lights is increasing. This combination triggers a physical sense of danger.
What is happening? Is she closing in from starboard to port? Is her beam distance insufficient? Or
is ownship overtaking her at a dangerously close range? One thing is certain: a starboard-side vessel
is closing on ownship, and herrelative bearing has increased.
You might think: “I’ll just alter course to port by 5 degrees to speed up the passing.”
But wait. Take a closer look. This starboard-side vessel’s distance from our bow is now less than
500 meters. This distance—this physical proximity—is a "sure sign" for immediate action.
Why?
Because at less than 500 meters, you are no longer in a "navigational encounter"; you are in a
spatial crisis. Any small vessel crossing your bow at this range can disappear into your blind sector in
seconds. The "3-degree change" you see is deceptive; it doesn't provide enough clearance for a vessel
of our mass. The increase in glare and reflection isn't just a visual detail—it is the sea telling you that
the distance is collapsing faster than your instruments can calculate.
This is your first lookout lesson in the Far East: When the bow distance drops below the SOLAS
500m limit, the time for "watching" is over. It is time to act.
Figure 2-6 Bow crossing by small boat. Your first lookout lesson in Far East.
2-03 Bow crossing by small boat
In Figure 2-2, we used the SOLAS visibility line as our reference—our "personal horizon." We
successfully identified Vessels No. 1 and No. 2 sitting right on that 500-meter line. I advised you to give
way to the starboard-side vessel showing only a three-degree bearing change.
Why am I so anxiousabout this? Because this small vessel isabout to merge into your visual blind
sector: the 500 meters immediately ahead of your bow.
If you lose visual contact with a target at this range, anything can happen in the dark. Maybe they
suffer an engine breakdown, lose steering, or get fouled in their own fishing nets. Once a vessel enters
that blind distance, your heart should be in your throat.
But there is a concern even greater than losing sight of them: it is the potential loss of control of
your own ship.
You see, that 500 meters is a distance your bow cannot maneuver out of. In that space, your ship’s
bow is effectively "frozen." Why? Because we are a ship, not a car. Ships change direction in water
through rudder effects, and a rudder's surface area is no match for the massive momentum of a ship’s
body and weight. It works, but it works in slow motion.
How slow is your vessel’s response to the rudder angle you’ve just ordered??
Figure 2-7 Visual blind sector: 500 meters ahead of ownship’s bow.
Look at Figure 2-7. No matter how much rudder you apply, your bow stays on its original track in
the beginning. This is because the rudder is at the aft of the ship. You don't steer the bow; you push the
stern.
To understand why that 500-meter zone is a "Dead Zone," you must understand that vessel turning
happens in three distinct stages:
2-04 First Stage in Turning: The Inertial Delay
In the first stage of a turn, the only thing that moves is the stern. It is pushed outward by the
rudder’s resistance in the water. Think of a man-overboard maneuver: we throw the rudder hard over,
hoping the stern will swing away from the person in the water. In this phase, the ship’s bow continues
to follow the original course line without any lateral movement whatsoever.
The data shows that forabout 1.5 ship lengths of advance, your bow remains locked on its original
heading.
This first stage is a physical "wait time." No matter how urgent the crisis, you are at the mercy of
the ship’s reaction time. You must stop thinking of yourself as a single point on a chart. You may be a
300-meter vessel, but in a maneuver, you behave like a 600-meter monster.
Look at the geometry of your movement. If your bridge is at Point A, you cannot effectively initiate
a course change to avoid a collision until you reach Point C—one and a half ship lengths ahead. Any
vessel closer than Point C is already inside your "maneuvering shadow." At that range, you cannot
steer away from them; they must use their own engine power and steering gear to get out of your way.
The area of movement that travels with us is massive. As anOOW, handling a vessel of this size is
equivalent to managing the momentum of four thousand cars simultaneously. We are the drivers of the
largest robots on Earth, and that is no exaggeration.
You must carry this awareness: the distance to Point C is approximately thesame as the IMO
visibility limit of 500 meters. This is exactly why we feel that deep anxiety when a small vesselsails into
our blind sector. They have entered a space where ourability to maneuver has effectively ceased,
threatening thesafety of both vessels.
Figure 2-8 Distance of Advance included blind sector.
2-05 Take bearing from where for target vessel
In Rule 7 of COLREGs, collision risk shall be deemed to exist if the compass bearing of an
approaching vessel does not appreciably change. But the rule then adds a warning: collision risk may
sometimes exist even when an appreciable bearing change is evident—particularly when approaching
a very large vessel, a tow, or a vessel at close range.
This sounds like a contradiction. How can a changing bearing still mean a collision risk?
The answer is found in the physical reality of closing distance (Figure 2-8). As vessels draw near,
the target does not remain a "point" on the horizon; it grows. This is where parallax—the apparent
change in bearing caused by the closing distance altering your line of sight—can deceive you. In the
previous chapter, we discussed the "Visual Blossom," where the target vessel appears to expand at
close range.
How big can that "blossom" get? At a terminal range, a massive vessel or a long tow can grow until
it behaves like an island or an iceberg, physically blocking your entire horizon from the starboard bow
to the port bow.
In this situation, a "changing bearing" measured from the target's bow doesn't mean you aresafe. If
the target's bow is moving down your port side but its stern is still swinging toward your starboard side,
you aren't passing—you are being swallowed by the target’s physical dimensions.
This is the knowledge awareness a Junior Officer must hold: When the distance is small, a single
bearing point is no longer enough. You must monitor the whole "body" of the threat
